The first discovery of pre-stone age civilization in Rajasthan was made in 1870 AD by C.A. Hackett by obtaining hand-axes from Jaipur and Indragarh (Bundi). After this, Setankar had discovered tools of this era from Jhalawar and not from Ajmer, hence statement B is wrong. Famous archaeologist B. Alchin recovered important Palaeolithic tools from Jalore area. Quartzite stone tools obtained from excavations prove that human culture existed in Rajasthan about one and a half to two lakh years ago. The main expansion area of ​​these cultures has been along the banks of Chambal, Banas and their tributaries.

Famous archaeologist Dr. A.C.L. Carlyle conducted an archaeological survey of Bhandarej (Bhandaraj) located in Dausa district during 1871-72 AD. In his survey details he has specifically mentioned a very grand and artistic Sati memorial located at Bhandarej. Bhandarej was a rich Buddhist and Hindu cultural center in ancient times, from where Gupta and pre-medieval remains have also come to light. Carlyle played an important role in the discovery of many historical monuments and rock paintings of eastern Rajasthan.

The world's oldest plowed field has been found in the south-eastern part of Kalibanga (Hanumangarh) outside the defense rampart from the Pre-Harappan level. This farm is situated on the left bank of the Ghaggar (ancient Drishadvati/Saraswati) river and dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. It is considered to be from the first half of the century. In this field, marks of grid pattern depressions have been found, which intersect each other at right angles. This proves that two crops (gram and mustard) were grown together here, which is still prevalent in this area. This land has been considered as the 'land of abundance' mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts.

Ahad civilization (Udaipur) developed in Bedach and Banas river valley and is called Banas culture, whose local name is Dhulkot. Baked clay bulls have been found here which have been called 'Banasian Bull'. Professor Gregory L. Modern scientific excavations were conducted in Gilund (Rajsamand) in 1999-2003 in collaboration with Possel (University of Pennsylvania) and Deccan College, Pune. In the excavation of Ahad, Akshay Kirti Vyas, R.C. Aggarwal and H.D. Sankaliya work was done, from where 4-6 stoves and Greek coins were found in a house as a symbol of collective food system and joint family.

The advent of the Iron Age in Rajasthan brought revolutionary changes in agriculture and warfare technology. Due to the discovery of huge quantity of iron material, coins and tools from Raidh (Tonk), K.N. Puri called it 'Tatanagar' of ancient Rajasthan. The oldest bellows furnaces for iron ore smelting in India have been found from both Jodhpura and Sunari. Radiocarbon dates of iron remains obtained from Noh (Bharatpur) provided conclusive evidence in determining the early period of iron technology in India. The sites are also deeply associated with the Painted Gray Ware (PGW) tradition.

The Painted Gray Ware (PGW) culture emerged around 1000 BC. to 600 B.C. It is believed to have happened with the later Vedic period between 1000 BC. In Rajasthan, Viratnagar (Bairath), Jodhpura, Sunari and Noh have been the main centers of this culture. On these characters, geometric lines, dots and semicircles have been engraved in black on a gray background. This culture is directly related to the widespread use of iron technology and the rise of Janapadas in North India. Hence option B is completely correct.

Kalibanga is situated on the left bank of the ancient Saraswati/Drishadwati (present day Ghaggar) river in Hanumangarh district. Gilund is a major center of Ahad culture developed on the banks of Banas river in Rajsamand district. Bagor is a Mesolithic site situated on the banks of Kothari River in Bhilwara district from where the Mahasatiyan Mound was excavated. Ganeshwar is the original cradle of Copper Age culture situated at the origin of Kantli River in Neemkathana (Sikar).

The Ganeshwar site excavated under the direction of Ratanchandra Agarwal and Vijay Kumar dates back to 2800 BC. Is the oldest copper civilization. The instruments here contained 99% pure copper and from here copper was supplied to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. This site presents a unique example in the world of construction of solid stone dams on both sides of the river. The double spiral-headed pins found here indicate contacts with Central Asia and West Asia, and its special utensils are called Kapishvarni pottery.

'Dar' village of Bharatpur district is famous for prehistoric rock art. Here, beautiful pictures of human figures, tiger, deer and sun etc. have been carved on the walls of natural caves and rock shelters with ocher and other natural colors. These paintings provide invaluable information about the artistic expression of early humans, their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and their natural environment. Alania, Dar, Bairath and Samdari are the major rock painting sites in Rajasthan.

Chandravati (Abu Road, Sirohi) was the ancient capital of the Parmar rulers, whose detailed and scientific excavation was done under the joint auspices of archaeologist Dr. Jeevan Kharkwal (J.S. Kharkwal) of Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur and the Rajasthan Archeology Department. Here, grand temple groups, residential settlements, protective ramparts and excellent evidence of metal refining from the 10th to 13th centuries have been found. Colonel Tod had also given a vivid description of the artistic splendor of Chandravati in his book in 1822.

Bairath (ancient Viratnagar) is a very important archaeological site situated on the banks of the Banganga River. In 1837, Captain Burt discovered the Bhabru miniature inscription of Ashoka from the hill of Bijak, in which Ashoka expresses faith in the Triratna (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha) of Buddhism. Here Dayaram Sahni (1936-37) and Neelratna Banerjee and K.N. Excavations were conducted by Dixit (1962-63). During the excavation, India's oldest circular Buddhist stupa-temple made of bricks, 36 silver coins (8 punchmarks and 28 Greek/Minander coins) and remains of cotton cloth were found.

The ancient name of Bhinmal was 'Shrimal', whose excavation was done by Shri Ratnachandra Agrawala (R.C. Agrawala) in 1953-54 AD. During the excavation here, coins of Shaka Satraps, Roman amphora (wine vessel) and Greek double-handled jug were found, which proves that Bhinmal was a prosperous center of international trade with Rome and Greece in ancient times. Bhinmal has also been the workplace of the great poet Magha (author of Shishupalavadham) and the great mathematician and astronomer Brahmagupta.

Rangmahal is a famous place of Kushan and Gupta period civilization located in Hanumangarh on the banks of ancient Saraswati/Ghagghar river. In 1952-54, its detailed scientific excavation took place under the leadership of Sweden's famous archaeologist Dr. Hanna Rid. Here, abundant red colored distinctive stamped pottery, coins of Kushan Emperor Kanishka and Vasudev, clear evidence of rice cultivation, famous clay statue of Guru-disciple influenced by Gandhara style, 'Ajaikpad' statue with goat's face and elephant's feet and the oldest scenes of Krishna holding Govardhan and Danlila have been found.

The ancient name of the city located near Chittorgarh was 'Madhyamika', which was the capital of Shivi district. Maharishi Patanjali wrote in Mahabhashya: 'Arunadyavanah Saketam, Arunadyavano Madhyamikam' (Yavan invader Demetrius/Minander surrounded Saket and Madhyamika). Madhyamika is also mentioned in Nakul's Digvijay in the Sabhaparva of Mahabharata. Carlyle discovered it in 1872 and Dr. D.R. in 1919-20. Bhandarkar and in 1961-62 K.V. Soundararajan carried out excavations from which protective walls, remains of a canal and copper coins inscribed 'Majamikaya Shibi Janapadas' were found from the Sunga-Kushan levels.

'Nagar', situated in Uniara tehsil of Tonk district, was called 'Karkot Nagar' in ancient times, which was a major political and business center of Malav district. Here in 1943-44 archaeologist Shri Krishnadev and later K.V. Soundararajan got the excavation done. A large number of (about 6000) copper coins of Malav district, Kamadev-Rati made of white clay from the Sunga period, artistic panels of Indra-Indrani and the statue of Mahishasurmardini made of gray stone from the post-Gupta period have been found here.

Bagor (Bhilwara) and Tilwara (Balotra) provide the most authentic evidence of the Mesolithic period and the beginning of animal husbandry in India. During 1967-70, Dr. Virendranath Mishra (V.N. Misra) and L.S. Leshnik excavated the Mahasatian mound of Bagor. From here 5000 BC. Remains of cattle, sheep and pig rearing, millions of microliths, copper arrowheads and systematic evidence of burial of human skeletons in the east-west direction have been found.

Kurada is a rich Chalcolithic site located in Didwana-Kuchaman (Parbatsar) district from where metal vessels and tools were found in 1934. Pind-Padalia is a Chalcolithic period site located in Chittorgarh district. Kol Maholi is a copper deposit site located in Sawai Madhopur district. Malah is a Copper Age site located near Ghana Bird Sanctuary in Bharatpur district, from where copper swords and harpoons have been found.

327-326 BC When the Macedonian ruler Alexander invaded North-West India and Punjab in 1500, the brave republican castes of Punjab migrated towards Rajasthan to protect their independence and identity. Prominent among them were Malav (Jaipur-Tonk region), Shivi (Chittor-Mewar region), Arjunayan (Alwar-Bharatpur region) and Rajanya (Bharatpur region). These districts came to Rajasthan and established their independent republican governance systems, which remained effective till the fourth century of Christ (Gupta period).

Sriganganagar and Hanumangarh area of ​​northern Rajasthan was called Yaudheya district. The desert area of ​​Bikaner and Jodhpur was called 'Jungle Desh' during the Mahabharata period (due to which the King of Bikaner was called 'Jangladhar Badshah'). The area around Sambhar Lake of Ajmer and Nagaur was called Sapadalaksh (a group of 1.25 lakh villages), which was the original place of Chauhans. The areas of Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli of eastern Rajasthan came under Shursen district (capital Mathura).

Bijolia inscription (Vikram Samvat 1226/1170 AD) is the most authentic source of Chauhan history. It was installed in the Parshvanath temple by Jain monk Lolark, whose verses were written by Gunabhadra and engraver by Kayastha Keshav. In this inscription, the construction of Sambhar Lake by Vasudev, the progenitor of the Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty, in 551 AD and Samantraj is said to have been born in the Vatsagotriya Brahmin dynasty. The names of the then cities – Jabalipur (Jalore), Naddul (Nadole), Vindhyavalli (Bijolia), Shrimal (Bhinmal) etc. are recorded in it.

Chandbardayi in 'Prithviraj Raso' explained the origin of four Rajput dynasties (Pratihar, Parmar, Chalukya, Chauhan) from the fire of the yagya performed by Maharishi Vashishtha on Mount Abu. Dr. G.H. Ojha and C.V. On the basis of Indian literature and inscriptions, Vaidya proved the Rajputs to be the descendants of the ancient Vedic Aryan Kshatriyas. Colonel Todd and Vincent Smith considered the Rajputs to be foreign Shakas, descendants of Scythians and Huns, on the basis of similarity in customs (horse worship, weapon worship, drinking alcohol). Whereas Bhandarkar and Dr. Dashrath Sharma presented the opinion of Brahmin origin on the basis of Bijolia article.

The 'Badli inscription' (443 BC / AD 386) found from the temple of Bhilot Mata in Badli village of Ajmer district is considered to be the oldest known inscription of Brahmi script in Rajasthan and after the Piprahawa Stupa in India. Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha discovered it in 1912 and preserved it in the Ajmer Museum. In the second line of this fragmentary article, there is a clear mention of the word 'Majhmikaya' (Madhyamika city), which dates the ancient existence of Jainism and the city to the 5th century BC. I certify.

Two important inscriptions of the time of Pratihar king Kakkuk of 861 AD have been found from Ghatiala (Jodhpur). In this, the complete genealogy of Mandore branch of Pratiharas is given from Harishchandra to Kakkuk. It is known from the inscription that Kakkuk ended the terror of the marauding Aabhirs, settled the traders, started markets (haats) and got Kirtistambh (Jaystambh) established in Ghatiala and Mandore. There is also a clear mention of the Sun worshiping 'Maga' (Shakadvipiya) Brahmins.

Noh (Bharatpur), situated on the banks of Ruparel river, was excavated in 1963-64 by R.C. Done by Aggarwal. Continuous remains of five cultural periods (Geric Ware, Painted Gray Ware, Northern Black Lustrous Ware, Shunga-Kushan and Gupta period) have been found here. From here, a huge statue of Yaksha made of stone, about 8.5 feet high, of the Sunga period has been found, which the local people call 'Jokh Baba'. Along with this, smooth Mauryan era polished stones, iron spearheads, Chakrakupa and baked brick dwellings have been found in Chunar.

Balathal (Udaipur) is the most important excavated site of Ahad culture. V.N. The excavations conducted under the leadership of Mishra have revealed Chalcolithic as well as Iron Age levels here. The huge walled structure of 11 rooms found here reveals the collective security system of that time. A male skeleton about 4000 years old has been found here, which is considered to be the oldest scientific evidence of leprosy in India. Apart from this, copper coins, clay bulls, ivory beads and spindles for weaving cloth and woven cotton cloth have been found.

Ozhiyana (Badnaur, Beawar/Bhilwara) is a unique Chalcolithic site of Ahad culture situated on the hill slopes in the upper catchment area of ​​Kothari river. Its excavation was done by Shri B.R. of Archaeological Survey of India. Done in 2000-2001 under the direction of Meena and Dr. Alok Tripathi. Three phases of Ahad culture have been found here. The most unique feature of Ozhiyana are the figures of baked clay cow and 'Ozhiyana Bull' (bull painted in white), which are rare elsewhere.

Didwana and Jayal (Nagaur) are the major centers of Lower Palaeolithic in western Rajasthan. Here, in the studies conducted by Indian and foreign scientists, successive climatic layers millions of years old and hand-axes, cleavers and chopper-chopping tools of the Paleolithic period have been found from '16R Mound'. These sites prove that millions of years ago, rivers flowed in the Thar Desert and primitive humans lived here.

The development of prehistoric cultures in Rajasthan has been extremely rich. Didwana, Jayal, Dar, Bhangarh were prominent in the Paleolithic period. Bagor and Tilwara became major centers of animal husbandry in the Mesolithic period (Microlithic era). In the Copper Age, Ganeshwar (Sikar), Jhadol (Udaipur), Pind-Padalia (Chittorgarh), Kurada (Didwana-Kuchaman), Sapania and Poongal (Bikaner), Kiradot and Chithwadi (Jaipur) were spread. In the Iron Age, Noh (Bharatpur), Jodhpura (Jaipur), Sunari (Jhunjhunu) and Raidh (Tonk) emerged as the main centers of metal industry.

Kalibanga was discovered by Amlanand Ghosh in 1952 and B.B. in 1961-69. Lal and B.K. Thapar got the excavation done. The first excavation of Ahad was done in 1953 by Akshay Kirti Vyas and in 1954 by R.C. Aggarwal and in 1961 H.D. Sankaliya did it. Raidh (Tonk) was excavated in 1938-40 by Dayaram Sahni and Dr. Kedarnath Puri. Bairath was excavated in 1936-37 by Dayaram Sahni and in 1962-63 by Neelratna Banerjee and K.N. Dixit did it.

The mention of 'Madhyamika' (present day city) situated near Chittorgarh comes in the context of Nakul's western conquest in the Sabhaparva of Mahabharata. Maharishi Patanjali (2nd century BC) has mentioned the siege of Madhyamika by the Yavanas in his grammar treatise Mahabhashya. Apart from this, the historical description of Yavanas attack on Madhyamika and Saket is also found in 'Yuga Purana' of Gargi Samhita. This place was famous as the capital of Shivi district during the Sunga and Kushan periods.

The Guhil dynasty of Mewar is believed to be established around 566 AD. There are diverse opinions regarding their origin among contemporary evidence and historians. Dr. G.H. On the basis of Ojha Samoli inscription (646 AD), 566 AD is considered to be the time of Guhil. Abul Fazal described him as belonging to the dynasty of Nausherwan of Iran. Colonel Todd presented the story of Guhaditya (Guhil), son of Queen Pushpavati, after the fall of Vallabhi. On the basis of the word 'Vipra' mentioned in the Ahad, Kumbhalgarh and Achaleshwar inscriptions, Nainasi, Bhandarkar and Dr. Gopinath Sharma have accepted the Guhilas as the descendants of Nagar Brahmins of Anandpur (Badnagar).

Bappa Rawal (original name Kalbhoj) is considered to be the real founder of the Guhil Empire of Mewar. In 734 AD, he defeated the Maurya ruler Manmori and won Chittor, but retained his capital Nagda. He built a grand temple of his family deity Lord Eklingji (Lakulish) in Kailashpuri and ruled by considering himself as his Diwan. Bappa Rawal, along with Pratihara Nagabhatta I and Chalukya Vikramaditya, did not allow the Arab invaders coming from the western border to advance beyond Sindh and pushed them back to the borders of Iran/Ghazni.

Rawal Jaitra Singh (1213-1253 AD) was a very glorious and brave ruler of Mewar. In 1227 AD, Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi launched a fierce attack on Nagda, but Jaitra Singh badly defeated the Muslim army in the historic battle of Bhutala. Although the returning Turkish army destroyed Nagda, after which Jaitra Singh made Chittorgarh the new capital of Mewar for security reasons. In Jai Singh Suri's Sanskrit play 'Hammir-Mad-Mardan', there is a detailed description of Jaitra Singh's honor-mardan of Iltutmish. Dr. Dashrath Sharma has called the period of Jaitra Singh the golden period of medieval Mewar.

Rawal Ratan Singh was the last ruler of the Rawal branch of Mewar. The main reasons for Alauddin Khilji's attack on Chittor included the strategic and commercial importance of Chittor (Gujarat-Malwa route), Khilji's imperial ambitions and the desire to get Queen Padmini ('Padmavat' written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi). In this historical war, saffron war took place under the leadership of Rawal Ratan Singh, Gora and Badal and the first Jauhar of Chittor was accomplished under the leadership of Queen Padmini. After the victory, Alauddin changed the name of Chittor to Khizrabad and handed it over to his son Khizr Khan.

Rana Hammir was the Jagirdar of Sisoda village (grandson of Rana Laxman Singh), due to which his descendants were called 'Sisodia'. In 1326 AD, he defeated Jaisa, son of Maldev Munchhala and re-established Guhil power over Chittor, hence he is called the 'Savior of Mewar'. Hammir proved his power by defeating the army of Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq in the battle of Singoli (Banswara). In Kumbhalgarh Prashasti and Kirtistambha Prashasti, Hammir has been given the highest title of 'Vishamghati Panchanan' (like a lion in fierce battles).

Maharana Kumbha was the greatest and most versatile ruler of Mewar. After defeating Mahmud Khilji of Malwa in the battle of Sarangpur in 1437 AD, he kept him captive in Chittor for 6 months and to commemorate this historic victory, a 122 feet high 9 storey Vijay Stambh was built between 1440-48. In 1456, when the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat planned to divide Mewar by the Treaty of Champaner, Kumbha defeated both the Sultans through diplomacy and military force and earned the title of 'Hindu Suratran' (Hindu Emperor).

Maharana Kumbha is considered the father of the architectural art of Rajasthan. According to Veer Vinod, 32 out of 84 forts of Mewar were built by Kumbha, of which Kumbhalgarh, Achalgarh, Basantgarh and Machan Durg are prominent. Kumbhalgarh was built under the supervision of the famous architect Mandan, whose 36 km long wall is called the 'Great Wall of India'. Maharana Pratap was born in its highest part 'Katargarh'. In 1439 AD, during the reign of Kumbha, a wonderful Jain temple with 1444 artistic pillars was built on the banks of Mathai river in Ranakpur, Pali.

Maharana Kumbha himself was an expert in playing Veena and a great musician, hence he had the title of 'Abhinav Bharatacharya'. He wrote the book 'Sangeetraj', which is considered an encyclopedia of music science, which is divided into 5 parts - Pathyaratnakosh, Geetaratnakosh, Vadyaratnakosh, Nrityaratnakosh and Rasaratnakosh. Apart from this, he wrote an authentic commentary named 'Rasikapriya' on Sangeet Mimamsa, Sud Prabandha, Kamaraj Ratisar, Sangeet Ratnakar Tika and Jaydev's 'Gita Govinda'. The first part 'Rajvarnan' of 'Ekalinga Mahatmya' written by Kanh Vyas was also written by Kumbha himself.

Rana Sanga was the last Hindu emperor under whose leadership all the Rajput kings united and fought under one flag (Pati Parwan tradition). Sanga had 80 wounds on his body due to which Colonel Todd called him 'a ruin of soldiers'. He continuously defeated the armies of Delhi, Malwa and Mughals in the battles of Khatoli, Bari, Gagron and Bayana. On March 17, 1527, in the field of Khanwa in Bharatpur, Babar won by injuring Sanga with gunpowder, artillery and Tulugama strategy and assumed the title of 'Ghazi'.

Presenting a unique example of devotion to Swami, Pannadhay put his innocent son Chandan to sleep before the sword of Banveer in 1536 and sent the child Uday Singh to Kumbhalgarh. Uday Singh became the ruler of Mewar by killing Banveer in the battle of Mavli in 1540. In 1559, he established the city of Udaipur and made it his new secure capital. In 1567-68, when Akbar laid siege to Chittor, on the advice of the chieftains, Udai Singh went to the Gogunda hills and entrusted the responsibility of protecting the fort to Jaimal and Patta (Fatta). The third Saka of Chittor was concluded with the sacrifice of Jaimal, Patta and Kallaji Rathore (the four-handed folk deity).

Maharana Pratap is the immortal symbol of independence and self-respect of Rajasthan. He was born on 9 May 1540 in Kumbhalgarh and in his childhood he was called 'Kika' in the Bhil community. After the death of Udai Singh in 1572, Mewari chieftains removed Jagmal and coronated Pratap in Gogunda. Akbar sent four messengers between 1572 and 1573 to subdue Pratap without war - (1) Jalal Khan (November 1572), (2) Mansingh (June 1573), (3) Bhagwandas (October 1573), and (4) Todarmal (December 1573), but Pratap rejected all the proposals to protect independence.

The battle of Haldighati was fought on 18 June 1576 in the narrow valley between Khamnor and Gogunda. Akbar had made a strategy by appointing Mansingh as the commander-in-chief in the Magazine Fort of Ajmer. In Pratap's army, Afghan warriors Hakim Khan Sur, Ramdas Tanwar (Gwalior), Jhala Maan (Beeda) and Bhil Sardar Poonja showed amazing bravery. When Pratap's favorite horse Chetak was injured and the Mughal army surrounded him, Jhala Bida assumed command of the battle by donning the royal insignia and attained martyrdom. Al-Badayuni has called it 'Battle of Gogunda', Abul Fazal has called it 'Battle of Khamnor' and Colonel Todd has called it 'Thermopoly of Mewar'.

The 'Battle of Diwar' fought on the day of Vijayadashami in 1582 AD was the decisive victory campaign in the life of Maharana Pratap. Pratap and Kunwar Amar Singh launched a fierce attack on the royal Mughal cantonment of Diwar located in Rajsamand district. With a single blow of his spear, Amar Singh buried the Mughal commander Sultan Khan along with his horse to the ground. After the victory of Diwar, Pratap won 36 Mughal thanas like Kumbhalgarh, Gogunda, Jawar etc. and made 'Chavand' his new capital during the crisis in 1585. Colonel James Tod called this glorious victory the 'Marathon of Mewar'.

Maharana Raj Singh I was a strong opponent of the fanatic policies of Aurangzeb. In 1669, when Aurangzeb pressured Charumati to marry her, Raj Singh protected her by marrying her. In 1679, he wrote a historic protest letter against Jizya tax and by giving shelter to Ajit Singh and Durgadas Rathod of Marwar, the 30-year-old Rathore became the pivot of the Rathod-Sisodia conflict. He installed the statue of Shrinathji brought from Braj in Sihar (Nathdwara) and the statue of Dwarkadhish in Kankroli. Built Rajsamand Lake and Rajnagar during the severe famine of 1662-76.

'Raj Prashasti' (epic) studded in 25 niches on the northern pal (Nauchowki) of Rajsamand Lake is the world's largest inscribed epic. On the orders of Maharana Raj Singh, Telang Brahmin Ranchod Bhatt composed it in Sanskrit in the form of Amarkavya Vamshavali in 24 cantos. This inscription gives authentic evidence of the detailed political history of Mewar, the Haldighati war, the treaty of Amar Singh-Jahangir in 1615, the construction of a lake by providing employment to lakhs of people for famine relief, and the Tuladan and religious works done by Maharana Raj Singh.

Maharana Sangram Singh II (1710-1734 AD) was an art-loving and influential ruler of Mewar. He built the famous 'Saheliyon ki Bari' with fountains in Udaipur for the entertainment of his royal daughters and queens and built the grand Vaidyanath Shiva temple in Sisarma village. During his period, the famous painting of Arabic-Persian characters 'Kalila-Damna' based on the stories of Panchatantra was done in Mewar style. The famous musical texts 'Raaga Sagar' and 'Raaga Kalpadrum' were also written during his time.

On the suggestion of Sawai Jai Singh, a grand conference of the kings of Rajputana was held in Hurda (Bhilwara) on 17 July 1734 to stop Maratha Chauth collection and looting in Rajasthan. Due to the death of Mewar Maharana Sangram Singh II, his son Maharana Jagat Singh II presided over it. The rulers of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner, Nagaur, Bundi and Karauli participated in the conference and signed a treaty to combat the Marathas by a joint army. But due to mutual hostility, selfishness and distrust of the Rajput kings, this plan could never be implemented on the ground.

Important social and administrative reforms took place in Mewar in the latter half of the 19th century. Maharana Shambhu Singh eradicated illegal social evils and laid the foundation of a new administrative system. Maharana Sajjan Singh formed 'Ijlaas Khas' in 1877 and 'Mahendraraj Sabha' in 1880 for governance reform, published the newspaper 'Sajjan Kirti Sudhakar' and invited Swami Dayanand Saraswati and assumed the post of president of 'Paropkarini Sabha'. He gave Shyamaldas the title of 'Kaviraja' and entrusted him with the responsibility of writing 'Veer Vinod'. At the time of unification, Maharana Bhupal Singh was given the post of Maharajapramukh for life.

During the reign of Rawal Tej Singh (1253-1273 AD), the book 'Shravak Pratikraman Sutra Churni' was painted on palm leaf by a painter named Kamalchandra in 1260 AD (AD 1317). This is the first available dated illustrated text of Mewar style and Rajasthan, composed in Ahar (Udaipur), which is currently preserved in the Boston Museum. Tej Singh had assumed the titles of 'Parambhattarak', 'Maharajadhiraj' and 'Parmeshwar' and had thwarted the attack of Sultan Balban of Delhi. His queen Jayatalladevi had built the Shyam Parshvanath temple in Chittor.

Raja Bhoj, the most glorious ruler of the Parmar dynasty, was rich in versatile talent. He composed more than 84 texts like Samarangana Sutradhar, Saraswati Kanthabharan, Siddhant Sangraha, Yuktikalpataru etc. He built Saraswati Kanthabharan Pathshala in Dhar where the statue of Vagdevi (Saraswati) installed is today the symbol of the Jnanpith Award. During his control over Chittor, he built Tribhuvan Narayan Temple which was later renovated by Maharana Mokal. Kumbhalgarh Prashasti (1460 AD) proves that Bhojsar Pond located at Nagda was also constructed by Parmar Bhoj.

Colonel Tod had compared the feudal system of Rajasthan with the feudalism of Western Europe, but Indian historians clarified that the system of Rajasthan was completely different from that of Europe. In Europe, the feudal king had 'servants/servants' (vassals), whereas in Rajasthan, the feudal kings had close relatives from the same clan and lineage who together shed blood for the establishment of the state. Here land was the birthright of the feudal lord. The king was 'primus inter pares' in the circle of feudal lords and respected him by calling him 'Bhaiji'.

The feudal division in Marwar state was very well organized. There were 4 main categories of feudal lords: (1) Rajvi - relatives of the ruler within 3 generations (like Jodha's brothers and sons), who did not have to pay taxes and orders. (2) Sardar – Other high noble feudal lords of Rathores. (3) Ganayat – Jagirdars of other Rajput clans (Bhati, Sankhla, Kachhawa, Hada) settled in Marwar state due to marital relations or other reasons. (4) Mutsaddi – Non-Rajput officials (e.g. Kayastha, Oswal, Nagar Brahmins) appointed to high administrative posts of the state who were granted jagirs.

In Mewar, the classification of feudal lords was decided during the time of Maharana Amar Singh I. 'Solah' (big jagirs like Salumber, Bijolia, Delwara, Begun, Kotharia etc.) and 'Battis' (medium jagirs) were famous. Rawat of Salumbar had the privilege of signing the leases of the kingdom with the Maharana and leading the vanguard of the army. King Prithviraj established 12 Kotris in Jaipur and later the feudal lords of Jaipur were classified into Tajimi (feuds who were given standing ovation by the king in the court) and Khas Chowki (feudal lords who provided military service).

In different states of Rajasthan, the feudal hierarchy was fixed on the basis of local traditions. Bikavat Sardar was supreme in Bikaner. In Kota, Maharao's close relatives were called 'Rajvi' who had 30 jagirs. In the Jaisalmer court, two clear categories were formed based on the seating positions of the feudal lords - 'Jeevani Misal' (right row) and 'Davi Misal' (left row). In the Jeevani Misal, the chieftains who were close blood relatives of Rawal and had more prestige used to sit.

In medieval Rajasthan, the main source of state income was land. The land was mainly divided into Khalsa and Jagir. Khalsa land was managed by state officials and patwaris. Jagir land had four sub-types: (1) Samanta Jagir (hereditary), (2) Hukumat Jagir (with administrative/military responsibility), (3) Bhom Jagir (tax-free land in exchange for the protection or sacrifice of the state), and (4) Mafi/Shasan Jagir (tax-free land given to bards, bards, temples, monasteries and brahmins which was never taken away).

Diverse and practical methods of revenue collection existed in Rajasthan. Lata (weighing and distribution in the barn) was the most accurate method. In Kunta (a mere eye estimate of the standing crop) the Jagirdar's employees often imposed higher taxes on the farmers, leading to disputes. Cash tax was called muqata. The rope for measuring land was called 'Dori' and the tax fixed on that basis was called Dori. In the Ghughri system, grain was collected in proportion to the seeds given by the state at the time of famine or sowing.

In the feudal system, many types of taxes were applicable on farmers and jagirdars. There were two types of 'Rekh' - Patta Rekh (estimated income written in the lease) and Bhartu Rekh (the amount actually deposited by the feudal lord in the treasury). On the death of a feudal lord, the king used to collect 'sword binding' fee from his successor. Local employees like Patel, Patwari etc. used to extort 'Dastur' from the farmers in the name of their expenses. Taking one-tenth of the produce separately was called 'Dasund'.

A wide variety of letters are preserved in the administrative records of Rajput states. 'Mansoor' was a royal decree issued by the prince on the instructions of the emperor (like Mansoor issued by Aurangzeb in 1658). 'Arjadasht' was an official petition sent by the king or diwan to the emperor. 'Kharita' was a political correspondence between two independent rulers. 'Rukka' was a message or letter of order between officers. Similarly, 'Parvana' was an order sent by the king to his subordinate feudal lords.

In the beginning of the 19th century, suffering from the plunderings of Marathas and Pindaris, the Rajput states made treaties with the British. In 1803, during the reign of Lord Wellesley, Bharatpur signed the first and Alwar signed a comprehensive treaty. Under the policy of Subordinate Isolation during the reign of Lord Hastings (1817-1818), Charles Metcalfe made treaties with the princely states of North and Eastern Rajasthan (Harbakshpal of Karauli was the first ruler). General John Malcolm made treaties with the Vagad princely states of South Rajasthan. Rao Shiv Singh of Sirohi signed the treaty last on 11 September 1823 because Jodhpur was claiming it.

In 1857, AGG of Rajasthan. (Agent to the Governor General) was George Patrick Lawrence whose summer headquarters was at Mount Abu. On receiving the news of Meerut rebellion on 19 May, he alerted all the rulers. On 28 May 1857, Indian soldiers of the 15th and 30th Native Infantry mutinied at Nasirabad, killed Major Spottiswoode and Colonel Newbury and marched to Delhi. On 3 June a mutiny broke out in Neemuch where Captain MacDonald's oath of allegiance was challenged by Mohammad Ali Beg. Beawar and Kherwara cantonments remained untouched by the rebellion.

The rebellion of 1857 in Kota was the most gruesome, organized and widespread popular rebellion in Rajasthan. Here, instead of any military cantonment, the Narayan and Bhavani platoon of the state and the common citizens rebelled together. For about 6 months (October 1857 to March 1858), the rule of Kota remained completely in the hands of the revolutionaries and they established a public administration. In March 1858, the British army of General Roberts and the army of Madanpal of Karauli attacked Kota with cannons and liberated the city. Jaidayal and Mehrab Khan were publicly hanged on a neem tree near the agency.

The soldiers of Erinpura (Moti Khan, Sheetal Prasad, Tilakram) rebelled under the leadership of Shivnath Singh and accepted the leadership of Thakur Kushal Singh of Auwa. Kushal Singh gave a crushing defeat to the British army and the combined forces of Jodhpur state in the battles of Bithoda (8 September) and Chelawas (18 September). Monk Mason's head was cut off and hung at the main gate of Auwa. In January 1858, Colonel Holmes captured Auwa by attacking with cannons and took the black marble statue of Sugali Mata with 10 heads and 54 hands to Ajmer. In 1860, Kushal Singh surrendered and the Major Taylor Commission declared him innocent and released him.

During the Revolution of 1857, most of the kings of Rajasthan acted as a 'wall of protection' for the British. Lord Canning said that "If kings had not acted as dams in the storm, our empire would have been swept away." Madanpal (Karauli) was awarded G.C.S.I. by the British. title and a 17-gun salute. Sardar Singh (Bikaner) went to Hansi, Sirsa, Badlu and crushed the rebels, for which the British gifted him 41 villages of TB Pargana. Kotputli Jagir was given to Ram Singh II of Jaipur. The rebellion in Dholpur was so fierce that Devhans Parihar and revolutionaries from outside took over the rule there.

Two prominent feudal lords of Mewar state – Rawat Kesari Singh Chundawat of Salumber and Rawat Jyot Singh of Kotharia showed unmatched sacrifice and patriotism in the war of 1857. When the British captured Auwa and Thakur Kushal Singh was wandering from door to door, Rawat Jyot Singh of Kotharia embraced him and provided safe shelter. He also secretly gave shelter to Peshwa Nana Saheb and his family members in Kotharia. Rawat Kesari Singh of Salumbar sent logistics and military help to Tatya Tope and openly disobeyed the orders of the British.

Amarchand Banthia was originally a resident of Bikaner and was the Chief Treasurer (Nagar Seth) of the Scindia royal family in Gwalior. During the struggle of 1857, when Rani Laxmibai and Tatya Tope reached Gwalior and there was a huge shortage of funds for the army, Amarchand Banthia handed over the entire treasury of Scindia to the revolutionaries for the sake of the motherland. After the British captured Gwalior, Banthiya was arrested on charges of treason and hanged him on a Neem tree in the bullion market of Gwalior on 22 June 1858. He was the first person from Rajasthan to be martyred in the revolution of 1857.

Dungji (Balji) and Jawaharji (Bhurji) became the folk deities that heralded the people's revolution in Shekhawati before 1857. They looted the coffers of the British and their supporting feudal lords and distributed them among the poor. When Dungji was deceitfully captured and imprisoned in Agra Fort, Lothu ji Nitharwal, Karna Meena, Sankhala Nai etc. disguised themselves as saints and attacked Agra fort and freed Dungji. In 1847, he shocked the British by raiding the Nasirabad cantonment. Later, Jawaharji was kept under the protection of Bikaner court and Dungji was kept under the protection of Jodhpur king Mansingh, where Dungji died in Jodhpur fort.

Suja Kanwar Rajpurohit was a very courageous and brave warrior of the first freedom struggle of 1857. He wore war attire like a man, held a sword in his hands and organized local patriots and launched a fierce attack on the British army and their allies in the Ladnun area. Due to his indomitable bravery and fighting skills, the British contingent had to leave Ladnun and run away. This unmatched bravery ignited a new flame of revolution among women and youth all over Rajasthan.

The great revolutionary Tatya Tope entered Rajasthan twice to revive the flame of revolution. He visited almost all the princely states of Rajasthan (Jaipur, Tonk, Bundi, Jhalawar, Banswara, Udaipur, Salumber, Sikar) except Jaisalmer. The rebel army of the Nawab of Tonk (Nasir Muhammad) and the army of Jhalawar joined Tatya. On 11 December, they completely captured Banswara and Maharawal had to flee. Mansingh, Jagirdar of Narwar, was ultimately caught sleeping treacherously by Naruka and hanged at Shivpuri on 18 April 1859, on which Major Showers commented that "the hanging of this loyal soldier will go down in history as a crime."

In the Revolution of 1857, the soldiers of the pen played a more powerful role than the sword. Suryamall Misan wrote immortal lines in Veer Satsai - "Ila na deni aapni, halaria hulrai. Poot sikhavai palanai, maar badai my." He wrote letters to the Rajput rulers to leave the slavery of the British. Bankidas Asiya, the court poet of Jodhpur King Mansingh, blasted the exploitative policies of the British rule. Girvardan gave a vivid depiction of the beheadings of the British in the battles of Auwa.

Guru Gobind Giri was the originator of spiritual, social and political renaissance in the tribal region of southern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Malwa. In 1881, after coming in contact with Swami Dayanand Saraswati in Udaipur, he took the initiative to free the Bhils from the evil practices. Samp Sabha, established in 1883, established unity among the tribals and boycotted feudal forced labor and liquor vends. His chief disciple was Poonja Dheerji. Due to the increasing influence of Govind Giri, the kings and British officials of Dungarpur, Banswara, Idar and Sunth states became afraid because the Bhils had stopped paying feudal taxes.

The massacre of Mangadh Hills is the biggest tribal sacrifice in the history of India's freedom struggle, which took place six years before the Jallianwala Bagh of 1919. The princely rulers and the British government, considering it a conspiracy to establish Bhil Raj, opened fire with cannons and guns on the orders of Major Hamilton. Poonja Dhirji and Govind Giri were arrested. Govind Giri was kept in Ahmedabad and later Hyderabad jail. After his release in 1923, he was banned from entering Mewar and Dungarpur and died on 30 October 1931 in Kamboi (Gujarat).

Motilal Tejawat was called 'Bavji' (father figure) and 'Messiah of the tribals' by the tribals. Inspired by the Bijolia movement and Gandhiji's non-cooperation movement, he resolved to establish 'eki' (unity) among the Bhils. They refused to pay the tax by raising the slogan 'No ruler, no order'. The 'Call of Mewar' included points against 84 types of taxes imposed on farmers, a ban on collecting dry wood and Mahua from forests, and against the practice of forced labour. When Thakur of Jhadol arrested Tejawat, thousands of Bhils surrounded him and got him released.

On 7 March 1922, a huge tribal conference was being held under the leadership of Tejawat on the banks of river Waris in Neemra (Pal-Chitariya) village of Vijayanagara State (present Sabarkantha/Gujarat-Sirohi border). British officer Major Sutton opened fire from machine guns without any warning, in which more than 1200 Bhil-Garasia were martyred. Tejawat was shot in the leg but his companions took him out safely. Tejawat remained underground in the hills of Sirohi and Gujarat for years and surrendered in 1929 at the behest of Mahatma Gandhi.

The British government and the princely state of Jaipur had snatched away the traditional Chowkidari rights of the Meena community and imposed the extremely oppressive 'Jarayam Pesha Law' on them. Chhotu Ram Jharwal, Jawahar Ram, Mahadev Ram etc. started the struggle against this. In 1944, a grand conference was held in Neemkathana under the chairmanship of Muni Magan Sagar in which 'Jaipur State Meena Reform Committee' was formed (Banshidhar Sharma President, Rajendra Kumar Minister). On 28 October 1946, in a huge conference at Bagawas (Jaipur), about 26,000 Meenas resigned en masse from the chowkidari work, which was celebrated as 'Liberation Day'. This law was completely repealed when the democratic government was formed in 1952.

Saint Mavji is considered to be the immaculate (Kalki) incarnation of Vagad. He died in 1784 AD. Consecration of Beneshwar Dham on (Magh Shukla Ekadashi). He was a pioneer of social harmony who organized the neglected Bhils of Lasadia (Udaipur/Salumbar) region and launched 'Lasadia Movement' against the evils. His 5 huge handwritten texts 'Chopade' (Premsagar, Meghsagar etc.) are in Vaagdi language which are taken out for darshan only on the day of Diwali. These contain accurate predictions of contemporary politics, effects of Kaliyuga and future global wars.

Many creative institutions were formed in southern Rajasthan to spread education and consciousness among the tribals. Manikya Lal Verma established 'Vagad Seva Mandir' in Vagad area and 'Khandalai Ashram' near Sagwada. Bhogilal Pandya, the 'Gandhi of Vagad', formed 'Harijan Seva Samiti' and 'Seva Sangh' and opened schools for Bhil children. Shobhalal Gupta spread education among the tribes through Sagwada Ashram and Harijan Ashram.

In the latter half of the 19th century, important social reform laws were enacted in the princely states of Rajasthan with the cooperation of British officials and local reformers. In 1889, Colonel Walter formed the Rajput Hitkarini Sabha and banned the practice of renunciation and fixed the age of marriage. On 10 December 1903, Alwar state strictly banned child marriage and mismatched marriages. Earlier, Kota had banned female slaughter in 1831, Bundi in 1822, Sati in 1822, and Jaipur during the time of Ludlow in 1844-47.

The brave women of Rajasthan participated shoulder to shoulder with the men in the national movement. Ratan Shastri was awarded Padmashree and Padma Bhushan. Anjana Devi Chaudhary led more than 500 farmer women in Bijolia and Begun and were lathicharged. Narayani Devi Verma awakened the consciousness of women in the difficult times of Prajamandal and established Mahila Ashram in Bhilwara. Indumati Goenka, Janaki Devi Bajaj, Maniben Patel, Ramadevi, Krishna Kumari etc. set an example of women power by going to jail.

Lala Jaidayal and Mehrab Khan successfully led the revolt of 1857 in Kota. Thakur Kushal Singh Champawat defeated the British army in Auwa in the battles of Bithoda and Chelawas. Amarchand Banthia attained martyrdom by handing over the treasury to Rani Laxmibai in Gwalior. Lotiya Jat (Lothu ji) and Karna Meena along with Dungji-Jawaharji looted Nasirabad cantonment and freed Dungji from Agra Fort.

In medieval Rajasthan, the king was the supreme center of administration and there was a council of ministers to assist him. Diwan (Pradhan/Musahib) was the main director of governance (e.g. Diwan in Jaipur, Pradhan in Marwar, Pradhan/Dewan in Mewar). Bakshi was in charge of military affairs. Naimittik was the royal astrologer in the royal court who calculated auspicious times, omens and constellations. Shikdar was the chief peace officer of the pargana and Amil was the revenue collector.

Munj Parmar (973-995 AD) was the most powerful and scholarly king of the Parmars of Malwa. He defeated the Huns, Kalachuris, Cholas and Guhilas. Munja defeated the Chalukya king Tailapa II six times, but in the last campaign he ignored the advice of his prime minister Rudraditya and crossed the Godavari, where Tailapa imprisoned him and ultimately sentenced him to death. The great Sanskrit scholars Padmagupta, Dhananjay, Halayudh and Amitgati lived under the shelter of Munj.

The genealogy of Parmars of Abu starts from Utpalraj and the most powerful ruler in it was Dharavarsha who fought a war against Muhammad Ghori. Dharavarsha's scholar Anuj Prahladan Dev composed the Sanskrit play 'Partha-Parakram-Vyayoga' and laid the foundation of Palanpur city. Vimal Shah, the minister of Solanki ruler Bhimdev I of Gujarat, built the supernatural first Tirthankara Adinath temple (Vimal Vasahi) of white marble in Delwara, Abu in 1031 AD. Later in 1230 AD, Tejpal built the Lunvasahi temple of the 22nd Tirthankar Neminath.

The Bhati Rajputs of Jaisalmer are related to the Chandravansh Yadavs of Mathura and Dwarka. Initially their capitals were Tanot, Lodrava etc. In 1155 AD, Rao Jaisal shifted from Lodrava and built Jaisalmer fort with golden yellow stones on Trikut mountain. Jaisalmer is famous for its two and a half Saka - the first Saka during the time of Alauddin Khilji (Mulraj), the second Saka during the time of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (Duda), and the third half-Saka took place in 1550 AD on the betrayal of Amir Ali of Kandahar, in which saffron was held under the leadership of Rao Lunkaran but the queens did not get time for Jauhar.

The kingdom of Hada branch of Chauhans was established in Hadoti. In 1241 AD, Rao Deva Hada defeated the Meenas and captured Bundi. In 1354 AD, Barsingh Hada built the huge Taragarh fort. In 1569, Surjan Hada made an honorable treaty with Akbar with the mediation of Mansingh and Bhagwandas. In the War of Succession (Samugarh) of 1658, Chhatrasal Hada (Shatrushal) attained martyrdom while fighting on behalf of Dara Shikoh as a royal commander. In his honour, his son Rao Raja Anirudh Singh had built a grand memorial Chhatri of 84 pillars near Devpura village of Bundi.

Kota was originally a part of Bundi princely state. Madho Singh Hada, the second son of Rao Ratansingh Hada of Bundi, showed unparalleled bravery in the suppression of the rebellion of Prince Khurram of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and in the campaigns in South India. Pleased with his services, Emperor Shah Jahan issued an imperial decree in 1631 AD, making Kota an independent state separate from Bundi and accepting Madho Singh as the first independent ruler of Kota. Later Jhala Zalim Singh became the all-powerful administrator (Dewan) of Kota state.

Jagdish Temple (Jagannath Rai Temple) of Udaipur was built by Maharana Jagat Singh I in 1651 AD. It is a grand temple with pinnacles in the Panchayatan style, with four small temples of Shiva-Parvati, Ganapati, Surya and Devi at its four corners. The prashasti of this temple was 'Krishna Bhatt' who composed 'Jagannatharai Prashasti' and not Ranchhod Bhatt (Ranchhod Bhatt wrote Raj Prashasti on Rajsamand), hence option C is false. The amazing sculpture of this temple has been praised eloquently by Colonel Todd and Kaviraj Shyamaldas.

In the 19th century, serious social evils like female slaughter and mismatched marriages were spreading in the Rajput society due to the practice of 'tyag pratha' (mandatory heavy amount of money given to Charan-Bhats at the time of marriage) and polygamy. On July 2, 1877, Maharana Sajjan Singh called a meeting of all the prominent Jagirdars and scholars in Udaipur and established 'Desh Hitaishini Sabha'. Kaviraj Shyamaldas played a key role in drafting its rules. This assembly set limits on wedding expenses and made the first institutional efforts in Rajasthan towards social reforms.

The battle of Bhutala was fought in 1227 AD between Rawal Jaitra Singh and Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi in which Jaitra Singh was victorious. The battle of Sarangpur took place in 1437 AD between Maharana Kumbha and Sultan Mahmud Khilji I of Malwa in which Kumbha won and built the Vijay Stambh. The battle of Khatoli took place in 1517 AD between Rana Sanga and Ibrahim Lodi in which Lodi was defeated. The battle of Diwar took place in October 1582 AD between Maharana Pratap and Akbar's Mughal army in which Pratap had a historic victory.

The Krishna Kumari controversy was a very heart-wrenching incident in the history of early 19th century Rajasthan. After the death of Jodhpur king Bhim Singh, she was engaged to Jaipur king Jagat Singh II, but the new ruler of Jodhpur, Mansingh Rathod, made it a question of the prestige of the clan. In 1807, a fierce battle took place between the two princely states in the plains of Gingoli in Nagaur in which Jaipur was victorious with the help of the Pindari army. Later, Amir Khan Pindari put pressure on Mewar and to save the Mewar state from destruction, on 21 July 1810, 16-year-old Krishna Kumari happily sacrificed her life by consuming poison.